Key Ideas
Imperceptibility
Importantly, priming does not need to be explicit for it to be effective. To impact a person's behavior, you do not need to make a clear priming case that is easily understandable. Rather, you merely need to prime a desired schema. People do not need to consciously understand the schema is being primed for it to be effective.
For example, in Bargh's experiment where an array of "rude" sounding workd were shown, those words flashed on the screen for 13-17 milliseconds, which is too fast for the brain to consciously process the contents of the words. However, the participants who saw those flashed were still more likely to behave rudely (e.g. interrupting their peers, etc.) than the participants who saw different flashing words. This indicates priming can take effect in imperceptible and abstract ways.
Non-Deliberate Causal Control
Another example is by Strahan et al. in 2008, and it explores the concept of social priming and its effects on behavior, particularly in relation to money-related stimuli. Here's a breakdown of the study:
Title: "Exposing the Myth of Freewill: Evidence for Nondeliberate Causal Control of Behavior."
Authors: Kathleen Strahan, James Spencer, Ziva Zanna
Objective: The study aimed to investigate whether exposure to subliminal images related to money (such as dollar bills) could influence subsequent behavior without participants' conscious awareness.
Methodology:
Participants: The study involved undergraduate students as participants.
Experimental Design: Participants were exposed to subliminal images of either neutral objects or images related to money. The subliminal presentation ensured that participants were not consciously aware of the images they were exposed to.
Measurement of Effects: After exposure to the subliminal images, participants engaged in various tasks or activities that assessed their subsequent behavior, attitudes, or decision-making processes.
Data Analysis: Researchers analyzed the differences in behavior and attitudes between participants exposed to money-related stimuli and those exposed to neutral stimuli.
Findings: The study found that participants exposed to subliminal images related to money exhibited different behavior compared to those exposed to neutral stimuli. Specifically, those exposed to money-related images showed:
Increased self-sufficiency: They were less likely to seek help or assistance from others.
Decreased willingness to help others: They were less inclined to offer assistance to others in need.
Implications: These findings suggest that exposure to subliminal images related to money can influence behavior and attitudes without individuals being consciously aware of the influence. This has significant implications for understanding human behavior and decision-making processes, indicating that subtle environmental cues can shape our actions and attitudes in ways we may not consciously recognize.
Significance: This study contributes to the growing body of research on social priming, highlighting the subtle yet powerful effects of environmental stimuli on human behavior. It challenges the traditional notion of freewill by suggesting that our actions can be influenced by factors beyond our conscious awareness.
Overall, the study by Strahan et al. provides compelling evidence for the role of social priming in shaping behavior and attitudes, even when individuals are not consciously aware of the influencing factors.
Anchoring
People are lazy when they consider their options and decision making. An example of that is how we react to anchoring in decision making. The idea behind anchoring is that people tend to be influence by an "anchor" when one is offered to them as an option.
One study by Englich, Mussweiler, and Strack (2006) demonstrated that even experienced judges could be influenced by arbitrary sentencing suggestions.
In this study, judges were randomly assigned to different groups where they were given a hypothetical case to decide on a sentence for a shoplifter. In some groups, the suggested sentence was relatively lenient, while in others it was harsh. The results showed that the suggested sentences significantly influenced the judges' decisions, even though they were aware that the suggestions were arbitrary.
Anchoring is caused by people's generally lazy and non-conscious decision making. Basically, individuals will have a natural "range of acceptable outcomes" predetermined in their mind when presented with a decision. Our natural instinct is to begin at the anchor, and work our way towards that range, stopping as soon as we hit the first value within that range.
One example is a study regarding the age of Ghandi when he died. Participants were asked to estimate his age at death. Half of the group was prompted by asking if they thought it was greater than 9 years old. The other half was aksed if it was less than 140 years old. Obviously, both groups knew their prompts were ridiculously low or high. However, the anchors still were effective. The "age 9" group estimated his age at death significantly lower than the "age 140" group. They merely started at their anchor and moved up or down until they sub-consciously arrived at the first number within their "range of acceptable estimates" they had for Ghandi's actual age of death.
Contrasting
People tend to be influenced about how they perceive something based on context or surrounding ideas. If an idea is surrounded by more radical ideas, the first one seems more reasonable.
An easy example to show this has ben replicated numerous times. In the experiment, two circles are shown to participants. One circle is surrounded by other circles that are much larger. The other circle is surrounded by much smaller circles. Participants regularly evaluate the circle that is surrounded by smaller circles as being larger than the other circle, even though they are both exactly the same size.
One classic example of the contrast effect on decision-making can be observed in the context of pricing.
Imagine you are shopping for a new laptop. You come across two options:
Option A: A basic laptop priced at $500.
Option B: A more advanced laptop priced at $1000.
At first glance, Option B might seem expensive. However, if you had initially seen a much more expensive laptop priced at $2000 before considering Options A and B, Option B suddenly appears more reasonable in comparison (even though it's still twice the price of Option A).
In this scenario, the contrast effect occurs because the perception of the value of Option B is influenced by the presence of the more expensive laptop (Option C). Option B seems more attractive and reasonably priced when compared to the much higher-priced Option C.
This contrast effect can influence decision-making in various situations, such as purchasing decisions, hiring choices, or even judgments of attractiveness or quality. It demonstrates how our perceptions and evaluations of options can be relative and influenced by the context in which they are presented.
Leveraging High Expectations
People are significantly impacted by the expectations that are set for an item or experience. The same product can be received vastly different by the public just by changing the way it is presented, or even just by making the item more expensive, thus increasing the expectations without changing the product.
One notable experiment that demonstrates this is the study conducted by Joshua Bell, a world-renowned violinist, in 2007, titled "Pearls Before Breakfast." Although not a traditional scientific experiment, it serves as a compelling illustration of context and perception.
In this experiment, Bell, one of the most accomplished classical musicians, played his violin incognito in a Washington D.C. subway station during rush hour. He performed some of the most intricate and beautiful classical pieces on a Stradivarius violin worth millions of dollars. Despite his extraordinary talent and the exceptional quality of his instrument, he was virtually ignored by the commuters rushing by.
This scenario contrasts sharply with Bell's usual performances in prestigious concert halls, where tickets to see him perform often sell out months in advance at high prices. In those settings, his performances are highly esteemed, and audiences are captivated by his music.
The experiment highlighted the role of context and environment in shaping perception and appreciation. In the busy subway station, commuters were preoccupied with their daily routines and likely did not expect to encounter a world-class musician. As a result, they failed to recognize the value of the experience before them. In contrast, in the concert hall setting, the audience's expectations were aligned with the environment, leading to a heightened appreciation of the music.
While not a traditional scientific experiment with controlled conditions, the Bell study serves as a vivid demonstration of how context & expectations can influence perception and behavior.
Self-Fulfilling Expectations
The concept of self-fulfilling expectations in persuasion revolves around the idea that individuals often behave in ways that align with their own beliefs or expectations about themselves, others, or situations. This phenomenon can have a significant impact on persuasion, as people's expectations about outcomes can influence their behavior and actions in ways that ultimately confirm those expectations.
Here's how self-fulfilling expectations operate in persuasion:
Belief Confirmation: When individuals hold certain beliefs or expectations about themselves, others, or a particular situation, they tend to interpret information and experiences in a way that confirms those beliefs. For example, if someone believes they are not good at public speaking, they may interpret nervousness or mistakes during a speech as evidence supporting that belief.
Behavioral Alignment: People often unconsciously adjust their behavior to align with their beliefs or expectations. For instance, if someone expects to fail at a task, they may approach it with less effort or enthusiasm, which can increase the likelihood of failure. Conversely, if someone expects to succeed, they may put in more effort and persistence, increasing the likelihood of success.
Interaction Dynamics: In interpersonal interactions, individuals' beliefs and expectations can influence the behavior of others, creating a feedback loop that reinforces those expectations. For example, if someone expects others to dislike them, they may behave in ways that elicit negative responses from others, thus confirming their initial expectation.
Persuasive Impact: In persuasion, individuals can leverage self-fulfilling expectations by framing messages and providing cues that shape the recipient's beliefs and expectations about themselves or the situation. By priming recipients to expect certain outcomes, persuaders can influence their behavior and increase the likelihood of those outcomes occurring.
Contextual Influence: The context in which persuasion occurs can also play a significant role in shaping self-fulfilling expectations. Factors such as social norms, cultural beliefs, and past experiences can all contribute to individuals' beliefs and expectations, influencing their responses to persuasive messages.
Overall, understanding the concept of self-fulfilling expectations is essential for effective persuasion. By recognizing how individuals' beliefs and expectations shape their behavior and responses, persuaders can tailor their messages and strategies to influence those expectations in ways that align with their persuasive goals.
Creating Congruent Attitudes
Creating congruent attitudes in persuasion involves aligning a person's beliefs, values, and behaviors to be consistent with the persuasive message being communicated. The concept is based on the psychological principle of cognitive consistency, which suggests that individuals prefer to maintain harmony among their thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Here's how the idea of creating congruent attitudes works in persuasion:
Consistency Principle: According to the consistency principle, individuals strive to maintain internal consistency in their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. When faced with conflicting information or messages, people experience cognitive dissonance, which is an uncomfortable psychological state that motivates them to resolve the inconsistency.
Congruence in Persuasive Messages: In persuasion, creating congruent attitudes involves crafting messages and arguments that are consistent with the recipient's existing beliefs, values, and attitudes. This increases the likelihood that the individual will perceive the message as credible and persuasive because it aligns with their preexisting mindset.
Alignment of Beliefs and Actions: Persuaders can also encourage congruent attitudes by aligning the recipient's beliefs with their intended actions. For example, if the persuasive message promotes environmental conservation, the persuader might highlight how adopting eco-friendly behaviors (such as recycling or using energy-efficient products) is consistent with the recipient's values of sustainability and stewardship.
Avoiding Cognitive Dissonance: Persuaders should be mindful of avoiding cognitive dissonance by ensuring that their messages do not create conflicts or inconsistencies with the recipient's existing beliefs or behaviors. Instead, the goal is to reinforce and strengthen the recipient's current attitudes by providing supporting evidence and framing the message in a way that resonates with their worldview.
Appealing to Self-Perception: Persuaders can also appeal to the recipient's self-perception by framing the persuasive message in a way that reinforces their desired identity or self-image. For example, a health-conscious individual may be more receptive to messages about the benefits of exercise and healthy eating if it aligns with their identity as someone who values personal well-being.
Long-Term Behavior Change: Creating congruent attitudes in persuasion can lead to more lasting behavior change because individuals are more likely to maintain actions that are consistent with their beliefs and values. By reinforcing congruence between attitudes and behaviors, persuaders can help individuals internalize the persuasive message and integrate it into their self-concept.
Overall, the idea of creating congruent attitudes in persuasion emphasizes the importance of aligning persuasive messages with the recipient's existing beliefs, values, and behaviors to increase their receptiveness and likelihood of adopting the desired attitude or behavior.
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